08 Japanese Western Warlords’ International Diplomatic Relations

 

     During the Warring State Period in Japan, there stood numerous powerful clans.  Some of them were strong enough to invade and annex neighboring clans, and aimed to advance to the Heian-Kyo Capital and unify the whole nation.  However, some powerful Western clans, especially those established themselves in Kyushu, stood too far from the Capital, and, instead, looked further West at Asia.

 

     The Historiographical Institute, the University of Tokyo, keeps the Shimazu Clan texts, which include a letter from the atom Clan.  The letter starts, “This time, we sent out a ship to Nanman (today’s Cambodia),” and mentions Sorin.  The letter was sent from a vassal of Otomo Sorin (the warlord of Bungo Province, today’s Oita Prefecture, 1530-1587) to a vassal of the Shimizu Clan, who ruled Satsuma Province, today’s Kagoshima.  It is supposed to have been written in 1573.

 

     The Otomo Clan seemed to have established diplomatic relations with the kings of Khmer, whose capital was located at Longvek, which was also visited by Portuguese.

 

     According to the letter, the ship sent out by the Otomo Clan was wrecked in Shimizu’s territory.  Otomo's asked Shimazu’s about the ship, but received no reply, so demanded the immediate return of the ship.

 

     In 1578, a Khmer king tried to present copper guns and elephants to Sorin, but the ship with the presents aboard was captured and interned by the Shimazu Clan.  In 1579, Shimazu Yoshihisa (1533-1611) sent a letter and presents to the kin instead (in return?).

 

     During the latter half of the 16th Century, other Western warlords turned their eyes to Asia as well.  The Sagara Clan in Higo Province, today’s Kumamoto Prefecture, sent their ships to Ming Dynasty, China.  The Matsura Clan in Hizen Province, today’s Nagasaki Prefecture, sent letters to kings of Siam, today’s Thailand.

 

     Those Western warlords’ active diplomatic relations with Asian countries were progressing, as a matter of course, side by side with their trading.  Why, then, could those Western warlords do a lot of trade?  Their trading was supported with silver and sulfur.

 

     In the first half of the 16th Century, the Ouchi Clan, who were based in Suo Province, today’s Yamaguchi Prefecture, fully opened up the Iwami Silver Mine.  The silver produced there was so massive as to flow out of Japan and to sweep all over East Asia.  The silver became a de facto international currency in East Asia.

 

     That was “silver rush”, and we had “sulfur rush” in the latter half of the 16th Century.  As Europeans brought guns into East Asia, there came a great demand for gunpowder.  However, China hardly produced sulfur while Japan had far too little saltpeter to meet the demand by so many warlords fighting one another.  Smuggling them between the two was just inevitable.

 

     The Otomo Clan’s and the Shimazu Clan’s territories produced a lot of sulfur thanks to active volcanoes there, and other areas in Japan had minor volcanoes too.  The more warlords ventured on smuggling, the more Chinese and Europeans were attracted to Japan.  China towns were formed in Western warlords’ territories, and, in the capital of Otomo’s for example, we can even find a record that Chinese living in the China town visited Ise Shrine to pay homage there along with some other Japanese living in neighboring towns.  How profoundly they adapted to Japan!

 

     The tally trade preceded these smugglings by Western warlords.  The tally trade was a part of the Sinocentric tribute system, and only those who were recognized as “subjects” by the Ming Dynasty were issued with certificates and were allowed to trade within the boundaries of the dynasty.

 

     The third shogun of Ashikaga Shogunate, Yoshimitsu (1358-1408), was accepted as a “subject” in 1402.  In 1404, 100 tallies were given to Japan, at least 6 of which were used by himself under the name of his son, Yoshimochi (1386-1428).

 

     In the latter half of the 15th Century, Ashikaga Shogunate declined, and was deprived of the control over the tally trade by the Hosokawa Clan and the Ouchi Clan, who were allied with the Sakai merchants near the Heian-kyo Capital and with the Hakata merchants in Kyushu.  In the 16th Century, the Ouchi Clan monopolized the control.

 

     In the middle of the 16th Century, the Ouchi Clan was destroyed by their vassal, Sue Harutaka (1521-1555).  After the fall of the clan, the tally trade has been supposed to have severed.  However, a couple of Western warlords such as the Sagara Clan and the Otomo Clan attempted to revive the trade, some others started unofficial trading for themselves, and, above all, “smuggling” flourished with Later Wokou sweeping the East China Sea.

 

 

The Ouchi Clan and their Smuggling

 

     As we are going to talk about the smuggling in Medieval Japan, we should start by looking at the Ouchi Clan, who used to be based in the westernmost provinces on Honshu Island, the largest island of Japan.  They were engaged in the last days of the official trade with the Ming Dynasty under the Ashikaga Shogunate, and opened up new days of smuggling by various parties.

 

     At Ningbo, in today’s China, in 1523, half a century after Japan plunged into the Warring State Period, an epochal and symbolic incident happened.  The Ouchi Clan clashed against the Hosokawa Clan there.  Ouchi's trading ships had arrived at Ningbo earlier with a newer tally.  Hosokawa’s, who had arrived later with an older tally, however, had bribed the head officer of the Office of Shipping Trade in the town to let their cargoes register first.  Having raged on it, Ouchi’s killed the leader of Hosokawa’s and burned Hosokawa’s ships.  Hosokawa’s Chinese crews escaped, and it added fuel to Ouchi’s flames.  Ouchi’s burned the buildings and houses in the town, captured the garrison commander, and took off to the sea.  A Ming flotilla, as a matter of course, chased them, but was defeated and its commander was killed.

 

     Both clans might have planned to export some Japanese products and import Chinese ones peacefully, but they virtually exported war to the weakening Ming Dynasty.  The Ming government shut down the tally trading against Japan as a retaliatory measure for a while, but that ironically raised smuggling and even Wokou, one of the 2 main enemies against the Ming Dynasty along with Mongolians from the North.

 

     Who and what were the Ouchi Clan then?  To understand that, we should look at their history first.  The Ouchi Clan used to call themselves the Tatara Clan, and confessed to being a descendant of Imseong-taeja, the third prince of King Seong (or Seongmyeong) (523-554) of Baekje, the southern part of today’s Korea.  The clan inherited the vice governor of Suo Province for generations as a local powerful family.

 

     During the South and North Courts Period (1334-1392) in Japan, Ouchi Hiroyo (?-1380) laid the groundwork for the Ouchi Clan’s prosperity and domination in the Warring State Period, from the middle of the 15th Century to the middle of the 16th Century.

 

     In the early 1350’s, Hiroyo defeated Washizu Nagahiro, who belonged to his hindered clan, and dominated Suo Province.  In 1358, he defeated Koto Yoshitake, and dominated Nagato Province, which was just west to Suo Province and was the westernmost province on Honshu Island.  In 1360, he was appointed the guardian samurai in Suo and Nagato Provinces by the Ashikaga Shogunate.

 

     Ouchi Yoshihiro (1356-1399) succeeded Hiroyo, and moved from place to place through out Kyushu to fight under the North Court against the South Court side in 1370’s.  His rival, Shoni Fuyusuke (1333-1375), who also belonged to the North Court side, was killed in conspiracy by Imagawa Sadayo (1326-?), who belonged to the North Court side too.  After Fuyusuke’s death, Yoshihiro established his clan’s exclusive status and right in trading with Korea.  Bellum omnium contra omnes?

 

     The Kingdom of Goryeo (918-1392) and the Kingdom of Joseon (1392-1897) in the Korean Peninsula maintained relationships with the central government of Japan, but also turned their efforts to establishing relationships with powerful sea families and samurai families in Northern Kyushu and along the Seto Inland Sea, while the Ming Dynasty accepted the diplomatic relations only with “the King of Japan”, in this case the Ashikaga Shogunate.  The kingdoms had to employ realistic approaches to clear Earlier Wokou away.

 

     Joseon accepted 2 types of official missions from Japan.  The first type was those from the King of Japan.  The second type was those from 5 “great chiefs”: 3 Shogun’s Deputies, the Shiba, Hosokawa, and Hatakeyama Clans, the Shoni Clan, and the Ouchi Clan.  The Ouchi Clan defeated the Hosokawa Clan, and diminished the Shoni Clan.  The Shiba and Hatakeyama Clans were mainly based in the Eastern Japan, and not interested in maritime affairs.  Even Joseon's official missions had to pass the Akama-ga-seki Channel, which were controlled by the Ouchi Clan, and the clan’s cooperation was inevitable.

 

     Ouchi Yoshihiro (1356-1399) sent troops to the Korean Peninsula into Gyeonsang Province in response to Goryeo’s summons for help.  Goryeo later sent an appreciation mission to Yoshihiro.  Yoshihiro asked for  the Tripitaka or Palman Daejanggyeong in return.  The Muromachi Shogunate seemed to have connived their direct exchanges, regarding the Ouch Clan as an agency with Korea.

 

     Being afraid of the Ouchi Clan’s power, Ashikaga Yoshimitsu (1358-1408), the third shogun of the Muromachi Shogunate, provoked Yoshimitsu to rebel against Yoshimitsu himself, and killed him at Sakai in 1399.  Yoshimitsu built Kinkaku-ji Temple, Shokoku-ji Temple, Rokuo-in Temple, et al.  He might have built as many temples as his plots.

 

     After Yoshihiro’s death in the Oei Incident, the shogunate appointed his youngest brother, Hiroyo, as the guardian samurai of Suo, Nagato, et al. Provinces, but Morimi (1377-1431), another younger brother of Yoshihiro who was elder to Hiroyo, defeated and killed Hiroyo in Nagato Province in 1401.  Morimi kept sending missions to Korea until 1423.

 

     After Ouchi Morimi’s death in battle, his 2 sons, Mochiyo (1394-1441) and Mochimori (1394-1433), fought each other for the succession of the clan.  Although Mochimori once occupied all the provinces, the clan was ruling besides a part of the Ishimi Province which Mochiyo escaped into.  Mochiyo recovered the provinces with the supports from the local samurais.  Mochiyo defeated and killed Mochimori and succeeded Morimi.

 

     Later, Mochiyo defeated the Otomo and Shoni Clans, and conquered Northern Kyushu.  When Ashikaga Yoshinori (1394-1441), the 6th shogun, was assassinated, Mochiyo was, unluckily, sitting in the same room, was injured, and died soon after.

 

     After Mochiyo’s sudden death in 1441, his 2 sons, Noriyuki (?-?) and Norihiro (1420-1465), fought each other, as the matter of course, for the succession of the clan.  Somehow or other, Norihiro overwhelmed Noriyuki, and Noriyuki became a priest and started tutoring his younger brother, Norihiro, and later Norihiro’s son, Masahiro (1446-1495).

 

     In 1443, the Kingdom of Joseon required Norihiro to send a mission, and he realized at the time that his father, Mochiyo, had secretly sent a (false?) mission to Joseon.  In 1453, Joseon offered a tally to the Ouchi Clan.  The clan was privileged, but was charged with eliminating false missions in return.

 

     Ouchi Norihiro (1420-1465) died of a disease, and his son, Masahiro (1446-1495) succeeded Norihiro.  The father and son tried to revitalize foreign commerce, and came into dispute with the Hosokawa Clan, who were one of the three clans that were producing vice shoguns by turns, and, unlike the other 2 clans, who were interested in foreign commerce.

 

     In the meantime, the Onin War (1467-1477) broke out.  The shogunate power was divided into 2; the East Force and the West Force.  The East Force was commanded by Hosokawa Katsumoto (1467-1477), and that naturally led the Ouchi Clan to joining the West Force.  Ironically enough, the Ouchi army turned out to be the strongest among the West, and Masahiro, whether he liked it or not, stayed and fought in Kyoto for a decade.

 

    As the Onin War progressed, the East conspired against Masahiro, who was fighting in Kyoto about 500 kilometers away from his home country, and appointed Noriyuki, then a priest, as a clan patriarch.  Noriyuki returned to secular life in a sense, and turned traitor to Masahiro.  As the East had Ashikaga Yoshimasa (1436-1490), the 8th shogun, with them, most of Ouchi’s vassals at home swore loyalty to Noriyuki.

 

   However, Sue Hiromori (1455-1482), the deputy guardian samurai of the Suo Province, alone rebelled against Noriyuki, defeated him in Suo first, then in the Nagato Province, and finally ousted him into the Buzen Province in Northern Kyushu.

 

   After the Onin War ceased in 1477, Masahiro returned, and concentrated himself on ruling and managing his provinces, boosting foreign commerce included.

 

   Sue Hiromori?  He was assassinated at the celebration party of the victory in Yamaguchi, Suo, in 1482.

 

     In 1479, Ouchi Masahiro (1446-1495) sent a mission to Joseon, and the mission members found out that other missions had been sent to Joseon during the past 10 years.  They instantly denied those missions’ legitimacy, although those missions might have been “officially” sent out by Noriyuki.  Anyway, after 1479, the Ouchi Clan sent missions to Joseon at 2-to-4-years intervals.

 

     Main exports from Japan were minerals such as sulfur, silver, and copper, lacquer ware, folding fans, folding screens, and swords.  Japanese copper was exported at a much higher price than sold in Japan.  China was chronically short of copper as its market economies were ever expanding.  In addition, Japanese copper included some silver, which Japanese refineries could not extract, but Ming refineries could.  As a result, Japanese copper was sold at a higher price than copper, and at a lower price than silver.

 

     The main imports were copper coins, raw silk, silk fabric, books, and ceramics.

 

     The Ouchi Clan devoted their energy to obtaining important exports in their domain.  They opened up the Iwami Silver Mine, the Sato Silver Mine, the Naganobori Copper Mine, et al.  They introduced cupellation, a refining process new to them, from Joseon, and drastically increased their silver output.  The increase was so large that their silver output once accounted for the one-third of that in the world, and changed the commerce in East Asia dramatically.

 

     The Ouchi Clan also protected and promoted artisans such as lacquer painters, inkstone chisellers, sword guard engravers, etc.  They also invited artists like Sesshu Toyo.  They welcomed aristocrats who were down and out in Kyoto, which was burned to the ground in the Onin War, and even an exiled ex-shogun, who might be considered as a person of culture.  The clan has been sometimes criticized for devoting themselves too much to culture, but their promotion of culture obviously improved and promoted their exports.  Their cultural policies should be evaluated as measures for the promotion of local industries and exports.  As the number of exports increased, they could import more.  They also promoted import substituting industrialization: silk fabric.  The craftsmanship developed there at the time had a major impact on Nishijin-ori, or Nishijin Weaving.  Nishi-jin literally and actually meant the Camp of the West (Force).

 

     As we have seen so far, the greater part of the Ouchi Clan’s foreign commerce in the form of exchanging missions was that with Korea.  But the commerce with China was more profitable.

 

     When the Ouchi Clan faced political and economical vital issues, they bribed shogun family with Chinese products such as Chinese paintings, Chinese bells, water buffaloes, et al.  Obtaining those Chinese products through Korea meant either to pay the cost of intermediary trade or to get quasi-Chinese products made in Korea.

 

     Ming Dynasty’s Sinocentric tribute system made the trades with them much more profitable. The tally trade was a part of a mission to Ming, and was a system devised and monitored by the Chinese officers for their king.  The tally trade involved exchanges of Japanese products for Chinese goods.  Thanks to their Sinocentrism, they, or the king, gave back more valuable Chinese goods than Japanese products.

 

     The Muromachi Shogunate had been monopolizing the commerce with China until the mid 15th century.  The shogunate sent missions to Ming 18 times in total.  The first 7 missions’ ships were all “owned” by the shogunate.  In the next 2 missions, big temples in Kyoto such as Shokoku-ji Temple joined the “ownerships” as well as the Yamana Clan, one of the three powerful clans that provided vice-shoguns by turns.  That is, the monopolization by the shogunate collapsed.  In 1447, Tenryu-ji Temple, which had been built by Ashikaga Takauji (1305-1358), the first shogun of the Muromachi Shogunate, burned down.  The shogunate under Ashikaga Yoshimasa (1436-1490), the eighth shogun that reigned from 1449 to 1473, was under fiscal reconstruction, and Yoshimasa sold tallies to raise funds.  As a result, the largest mission to Ming of all time was planned as the 10th one.  The Ouchi Clan could join the ownership for the first time as a local clan along with the Otomo Clan in Kyushu.

 

     In the 10th mission to Ming, which left Japan in 1451 and reached Beijing in 1453, Ouchi Norihiro (1420-1465) colluded with the Hakata merchants.  Hakata used to be the outer harbor of Dazai-fu, the Kyushu regional government which had civil, military, and diplomatic functions.  In the course of the subjugation of Northern Kyushu by the Ouchi Clan, Hakata town was burned down, and the new governor, the Ouchi Clan, and the Hakata merchants were much in need of the reconstruction money.  Norihiro and the merchants owned officially Mission Ship No.7, and also practically No.4, which was nominally managed in the name of Shibukawa Norinao (1422-1479), a Kyushu Tandai, a Kyushu regional guardian samurai corresponding to Dazai-fu.

 

     The 11th mission to Ming, which arrived at Beijing in 1468, had 3 ships.  Mission Ship No.1 was owned by the shogunate, No.2 by the Hosokawa Clan, and No.3 by the Ouchi Clan.  Although No.1 was owned in the name of Ashikaga Yoshimasa (1436-1490), the eighth shogun, Ouchi Masahiro (1446-1495), who had succeeded Norihiro, practically managed to raise the money for the equipment expenses of the ship.  The Ouchi Clan overwhelmed the Hosokawa Clan by 2-1.  The overwhelming ownership provoked a sense of crisis among central powerful families and big temples, and the Hosokawa Clan succeeded in ousting the Ouchi Clan from the next 3 missions to Ming: the 12th, which arrived at Beijing in 1477; the 13th, in 1484; and the 14th, in 1495.

 

     And then Ouchi Yoshioki (1477-1528) succeeded Masahiro in 1495.  By that time, the 10th shogun, Ashikaga Yoshitane (1466-1523) had been exiled by Hosokawa Masamoto (1466-1507) and was replaced with Yoshizumi (1480-1511).  After Masamoto was assassinated by one of his adopted sons, Yoshitane returned to shogun in 1511 with Yoshioki’s military support.

 

     Then there came the Nimbo Incident in 1523.  This time, Yoshioki overpowered the Hosokawa Clan.  He got a new tally from Zhengde Emperor (1491-1521) of the Ming Dynasty, and monopolized the ownership of the 3 mission ships.  The Hosokawa Clan had an old tally issued by Hongzhi Emperor (1470-1505), Zhengde’s father, and had no way but to send out a false mission.

 

     The Nimbo Incident gave other Japanese Western warlords 2 lessons.  First, if you are lucky enough and have the know-how of treating Ming officers, including bribing them, well enough, you might be able to make an “official” mission even with an out-of-date tally.  Second, even if you are unlucky, Ming military or security forces are not invincible anymore, that is, you can smuggle in China as a Wokou.

 

     After the Ningbo Incident, in the mid-16th century, the Ouchi Clan monopolized the ownership of 2 missions to Ming: the 17th, which arrived at Beijing in 1540; and the 18th, in 1549.

 

     Sakugen Shuryou (1502-1579) was a priest of Myochi-in Temple, a branch temple in Tenryu-ji Temple.  He was a vice-ambassador of the first mission in 1540, and the ambassador of the second one in 1549.  He kept records, and described how they negotiated with Chinese officers, what Japanese delegate members and crews were doing daily, what they experienced while they were sailing north along the Grand Canal, what was the audience with the Emperor in Beijing like, etc.

 

     Hereafter, we are going to follow the outline of Sakugen’s story about the mission in 1540.

 

     Sakugen assumed the vice-ambassadorship of the mission to Ming in 1540, whose ambassador was Koshin Sekitei (1481-1564), in 1537, answering the request by Ouchi Yoshitaka.

 

     The mission set sail from Naru-shima Island among the Goto Islands on April the 19th, 1539.  On May the 2nd, they encountered Chinese fishers, Wang Qi, Chen Ba, and Zhou Qi, off Wenzhou, communicated with them in writing, and learned, sailing large northward, it would take 5 days to get to Ningbo.  On May the 7th, they arrived off Ningbo, and on the 16th, they were allowed into its outer harbor.  Only then, they were supplied with groceries such as drinking water, chickens, pork, fishes, rice, liquor, et al.  On the 22nd, they finally got permission from the Office of Shipping and Trade in the town, left the outer harbor, sailed up along Yong River with Ming’s military ships escorting them, and arrived at Ningbo’s river harbor.

 

     The mission’s weapons were temporarily impounded in Ningbo while they were staying in China.  On May the 25th, the ambassador, the vice-ambassador, and chief traders were shown to the reception hall.  On June the 8th, the mission’s tributes were inspected by the warden of the Office of Shipping Trade in the region and Ningbo Governor, and landed.

 

     What and who were the members of the mission in 1540?  Besides the ambassador and vice-ambassador, who were both priests, there were some other Zen priests from the Kyoto Gozan temples; Tenryu-ji, Shokoku-ji, Kennin-ji, Tofuku-ji, and Manju-ji Temples.  Some others are vassals of the Ouchi Clan, including Yoshimi Masayori (1513-1588), a nephew of the assassinator of Sue Hiromori in 1482.  Still some others were the Hakata merchants such as Kamiya Kazue (?-?), Kawakami Mokuzaemon (?-?), etc.  They still had translators, doctors, and, of course, sailers.

 

     The mission had 3 ships, all of which were owned by the Ouchi Clan.  On each ship, more than 10 dozens of people were on board.  The mission, in total, had more than 400 members.  Because of Sinocentrism, a heavy burden was on Ming’s side.

 

     The mission members were treated poorly.  The rice was red and old.  The liquor was weak and cloudy.  Vinegar and sauces were thinned with water, and water itself went rotten after a night.  On July the 8th, Kochiku died at the age of 49, and, on the next day, Senpo Shokaku, one of the chief traders, died at the age of 42.  Some others got sick.

 

     On August the 16th, the mission finally received a permit to enter Beijing.  Only 50 of them were admitted to enter Beijing as a delegation.

 

     The delegation went north through the Grand Canal via Hang-zhou and Su-zhou, and arrived at Zhangjia-wan, an outer canal harbor of Beijing, on March the 1st.  They unloaded all the tributes there, and entered Beijing by road on March the 2nd.

 

    Arriving at Beijing, the delegation started rehearsing the ceremony being presented to the Emperor.   On March the 7th, the ambassador, vice-ambassador, 2 chief traders, and some accompanying priests entered the Imperial Palace with a chief translator, and had an audience with the Emperor.  They offered a tributary letter on the 8th, and tributes on the 11th to the Ministry of Rites.  They also rose to the occasion as they had ceremonies, banquets, and receptions.

 

     On May the 1st, the ambassador and other delegation officers were honored with Chinese gowns as to their ranks.  Having completed around 70 days’ delegation stay tasks, the delegation left Beijing on May the 9th.  Their return trip was in scorching heat with cicadas and frogs baying at them.

 

     Ming Officers had been sent to Nanjing in advance to prepare the expense for sulfur and the prize copper coins for the delegation.  The delegation officers were given the money and coins at Longjiang, an outer canal harbor of Nanjing, on July the 30th.

 

     In mid-August, the delegation went back as far as Chang-zhou and Su-zhou.  Sakugen purchased a lot of souvenirs there: a pair of chased iron products, a collection of philological literature, a box, a small ivory incense case, 6 Indian ink sticks, a brass chain, a stamp pad, a Chinese iron ring, a small golden Chinese ring, 2 picker cases, a blue ceramic sake cup, a bottle, a mat, a leather box, 2 red carpets, et al.  He also bought 5 meal boxes for mission officers who were left in Ningbo.

 

     On September the 3rd, the delegation went back as far as Han-zhou, and toured Lake Xi.  On the 12th, they finally got back to Ningbo.

 

     The 2 ships landed at a river pier near the Ling Bridge across the Fenghua River east of Ningbo.  The other mission members who had remained in Ningbo hurried to the pier to meet the delegation, and unloaded imperial gifts and souvenirs.  The delegation officers rode on palanquins, and returned to the reception hall in glory.  Kamiya Kazue prepared a hot bath.  The delegation members bathed in it, and healed themselves of strains from the long journey.

 

     Until May the 20th, 1541, when the mission left China, Sakugen spent more than 200 days in Ningbo, visiting neighboring places of scenic beauty, deepening their friendship with Chinese literary figures, and buying souvenirs.  Meanwhile, the ships were reequipped, and Yoshimi Masayori (1513-1588) and Yada Masushige (?-?), the vassals of the Ouchi Clan, held a Buddhist service as the chief mourners on the 12th anniversary of Ouchi Yoshioki’s death, whose son, Yoshitaka, owned the mission ships, and they, of course, engaged the ambassador, vice-ambassador and the other accompanying priests in the service.

 

     After a little more than 2 years and 2 months, the mission finally returned to Naru-shima Island on June the 26th, 1541, with great success.  At the time, Ouchi Yoshitaka was at the front in the Kanayama Castle, Sato County, Aki Province.  Sakugen left Yamaguchi on August the 12th, got to the castle on the 18th, and met Yoshitaka on the 19th to report the mission’s completion.  He also had the used tally checked in the presence of Yoshitaka on September the 14th.  Yoshitaka greatly rejoiced with the mission’s accomplishment, and, when he met Sakugen again on September the 16th, he already ordered Sakugen to visit Ming again.  Henceforth, they started preparing for the next mission in 1549 with Sakugen as the ambassador.

 

     The missions to Ming in 1540 and in 1549 brought a lot of returns to Ouchi Clan.  However, the profit was not monopolized by the clan and Hakata merchants.  For example, in the mission in 1540, along with those Hakata merchants, some Sakai merchants were on the ship No. 3; Ikenaga Soha, Ikenaga Shinbe, Katayama Yosaemon, Ishida Yosagoro, Iwai Shichizaemon, et al.  In the mission in 1549, Hibiya Sukegoro, Kinuya Sogoro, Konishi Yosaemon were on the ship No. 2. and Morita Shinzaemon was on the ship No.3, who were all Sakai merchants.  On the ship No. 4, a vassal of the Shimazu Clan, Tanaka Buzen-no-kami was on board.  It is quite natural we assume those Sakai merchants and the Shimazu Clan shared certain profit.

 

     We have another piece of corroboration to assume that vassals of other clans were on board.

 

     The Ueno Family, which used to be a member of the Wakabayashi Clan, in the Saga-seki Port, Oita Prefecture, has been passed down their genealogy.  The Ueno Family used to be a vassal of the Otomo Clan in the 15th century.

 

     According to the genealogy, Ueno Munetomo (?-1600) accompanied the mission in 1549 as a soldier at the age of 11, relying on Ouchi Yoshitaka (1507-1551), whose sister was a wife of Otomo Yoshishige (1530-1587).  Later, in the late 16th century, he was commended by the Otomo Clan for guarding their coast.  These 2 deeds of Munetomo suggest his family’s, maritime skills including the skills of maritime fighting.

 

     In the late 15th century, Ueno Totomi-no-kami was given the approval of governing the Shiu village along the coast, and was appointed as the local administrator of Seki-miya Shrine’s estate in Saga County by Otomo Masachika (1444-1496).  In the next century, Ueno Akitoshi (?-?) was ordered by Otomo Yoshishige to arrest pirate boats along the coast of Ueno’s territory in a letter dated June the 18th, 1562.

 

     The Ueno Family was samurais who governed the territory from Saga-seki, Amabe County, to the Usuki estate along the Usuki Bay, and who were good at navigating ships and arresting pirate boats.

 

     The Ouchi Clan hired central Buddhist priests such as Sakugen to import the “know-how” of sending missions to Ming, and might have called up samurais of other Western warlords for guarding the mission ships to show off their supremacy.  The deployment of those other samurais, however, leaked out the “know-how” of maneuvering Ming officials and getting along during the mission or commercial stay in China.  After the collapse of the Ouchi Clan in 1551, those Western warlords tried to send their own (false?) missions to Ming to profit from trading if their legitimacy was admitted by Ming officials; if not, from smuggling; in the worst case, from pirating as Wokou. 

 

 

The Sagara Clan and their Smuggling

 

     The Sagara Clan used to live in Sagara Manor in Totomi Province.  Sagara Yorikage (?-?) was not so cooperative with the establishment of Kamakura Shogunate, that he was exiled to Taraki Manor in Kuma County, Higo Province, Kyushu, in 1195 by the first shogun, Minamoto Yoritomo (1147-1199).  Yorikage was later forgiven by Yoritomo, and was appointed as the steward samurai in Taraki Manor in 1197.  His son, Nagayori (1177-1254), fought well for the Hojo Clan, which had come to gain hegemony in the shogunate ousting the Minamoto Clan, in the battles of 1205, and was appointed as the steward samurai in Hitoyoshi Manor in Kuma County in the same year.

 

     The Kuma County was an inland county.  Its gateway to the sea was Yatsushiro County, which had Tokubuchi Port.  The port was one of the 4 busiest ports in Higo Province, along with Takase, Kawajiri, and Shiki.

 

     In 1448, Sagara Nagatsugu (1411-1468), who was based in Hitoyoshi Manor, conquered Taraki Manor, and unified Kuma County, the largest county in Higo Province.  In 1460, he was approved to rule Yatsushiro and Ashikita Counties by Kikuchi Tamekuni (1430-1488), the provincial guardian samurai in Higo Province.

 

     Sagara Nagatsugu (1411-1468) had 3 sons, Yorikane (?-?), Yoriakira (?-?), and Tametsugu (1447-1500).  Yorikane was the eldest, but was handicapped.  Yoriakira died young.  Although Yorikane had a son, Nagasada (?-1531), Tametsugu succeeded Nagatsugu.

 

     In 1467, the Onin War broke out, and Nagatsugu was invited to Kyoto by Hosokawa Katsumoto (1430-1473), who was Shogun’s Deputy and who formed the East Army.  Nagatsugu went to Kyoto with his army, but got sick the following year, came back to Hitoyoshi, and died there.  Katsumoto, then, requested Tametsugu to come to the front.  Tametsugu answered that he would consult Kikuchi Tamekuni (1430-1488), the provincial guardian samurai in Higo Province, and Shimazu Tadakuni (1403-1470), the provincial guardian samurai in Satsuma, Osumi, and Hyuga Provinces, but was demanded forcibly.  Tametsugu went to Kyoto with his army in 1468.

 

     Meanwhile, however, Ashikaga Yoshimi (1446-1495), a would-be shogun, or a shogun in the East Army, or a false shogun for the West Army, went over from the East Army to the West army.  Tametsugu followed Yoshimi, and left Katsumoto.  There, in the West Army, he met Ouchi Masahiro (1446-1495), and probably might have had his eyes opened to the sea.

 

     Sagara Tametsugu  (1447-1500) was succeeded by his eldest son, Nagatsune (1469-1518).  Nagatsune had 3 sons; 2 elder illegitimate sons, Yoshishige (1489-1546) and Nagataka (1492-1526), and 1 younger legitimate son, Nagamasa (1501-1525).  Nagatsune abdicated in 1512, and was succeeded by Nagamasa.

 

     Once Nagatsune, who had been holding real power, died in 1518, Nagasada started trying to realize his belief in his legitimacy.  In 1524, Nagasada attacked Hitoyoshi Castle, exiled Nagamasa, and killed him in 1525.  On May the 11th, 1526, Nagataka attacked Hitoyoshi Castle this time, and eliminated Nagasada.  On the 15th, Nagataka was attacked by Yoshishige, and committed hara-kiri on the 16th.  Nagasada, his wife, and his 2 sons were assassinated in 1531.

 

     In 1533, Uemura Nagatsune (1495-1535), one of the brothers-in-law of Sagara Yoshishige, built a large mansion at Tokubuchi Port in Yatsushiro County.  The Sagara Clan built a big enough ship, Ichiki-maru, there in 1538.  Ichiki-maru made commercial voyages southward from Kyushu to Ryukyu by themselves for about 700 kilometers.

 

     Let me show one example of the Sagara Clan’s trade with Ryukyu.

 

     On May the 26th, 1542, Engakuji Zenso, a diplomat priest of Ryukyu Kingdom, wrote a letter to Sagara Yoshishige (1489-1546).  According to the letter, Yoshishige had sent a commercial ship to Ryukyu, and had paid various tributes to the king.  The kingdom addressed their thanks to Yoshishige for the rare tributes, charged the sea captain with passing the letter to Yoshishige, and presented back about 70 kilograms of sugar in requital.

 

     Interestingly enough, the kingdom admitted the ship to be an official ship of the Higo Province, although the Sagara Clan themselves were not the guardian samurai of the province.  Official ships of provinces were excused from paying tariffs.  The fact the kingdom recognized the ship as a Japanese official one also implies that Yoshishige did not hire Chinese commercial ships, which called at ports in Japan often in those days, but had his own ship.  He quite possibly used Ichiki-maru.

 

     As things went so well with Ryukyu, it wasn’t so difficult for them to sail westward to Ningbo for about 800 kilometers, once they learned some lessons.  Actually, Sagara Haruhiro (1513-1555), an adopted son of Yoshishige, built another Ichiki-maru in 1554, 3 years after the collapse of the Ouchi Clan.  The ship launching ceremony was held on February the 23rd in the same year.

 

     New Ichiki-maru set sail to Ming, not to Ryukyu, on March the 2nd, 1554, and sailed back home at Tokubuchi Port on July the 12th, 1554.  Only 4 months!  It means they didn’t, or couldn’t, visit Beijing.  It means they might not have been recognized as a national official mission.

 

     Anyway, what made it possible for the Sagara Clan to try trading with Ming?

 

     Previously in 1546, Sagara Yoshishige (1489-1546) wrote a letter dated July the 12th to his adopted-son, Haruhiro (1513-1555).  The letter reads that silver ore was found in Miyahara on July the 6th.  On the 18th, it was refined into about 100 grams of silver.

 

     In the Sagara Clan’s domain, there used to be 2 Miyaharas; one was in Kuma County in the mountains, the other in Yatsushiro County along the seashore.  There used to be a copper mine at Fukada near Miyahara in Kuma County.  The mine produced copper the most between 1704 and 1735 during Edo Period, but was closed in 1740.  The silver mine Yoshishige mentioned might have been at Miyahara in Kuma County.

 

     We can find another piece of supporting evidence that the silver mine was at Miyahara in Kuma County.  Miyahara Village used to have Nakashima-Kirishima Shrine, and neighboring Okamoto Village used to have Ofuki-Kirishima Shrine.  The two shrines were built at the beginning of the 9th century.  It is recorded that Sagara Haruhiro (1513-1555) renovated Nakashima-Kirishima Shrine sometime between 1532 and 1555, and Ofuki-Kirishima Shrine in 1548.  In his above-mentioned letter, Sagara Yoshishige (1489-1546) requested Haruhiro to thank the divine protection that the clan had found the silver mine.  Haruhiro probably might have followed his advice 2 years after the letter.

 

     In the 16th century, for Japanese “missions” to Ming, silver was not only for exportation but the means of payment for necessities of life during their stay in Ming too.  For example, the mission organized by the Ouchi Clan in 1549 had to anchor and wait in Hang-zhou Bay for months before they were allowed to sail into Ningbo Port.  During those months, they had to buy rice, alcoholic drinks, dried fish, vegetables, beans, tauco or tauchu, shaobing, green onions, potatoes, bamboo shoots, oranges, tofu, firewood, incense sticks, sickles, pots, straw mats, and paper at Aoshan or Dinghai in Zhoushan Island with their silver according to a record preserved by Myochi-in Temple.

 

     The Sagara Clan was a good pupil of the Ouchi Clan.

 

     In 1547, Muromachi Shogunate, or practically the Ouchi Clan, ordered the Sagara Clan to guard the mission ships, and the clan sent some of their vassal samurais.

 

     When the Sagara Clan developed Miyahara Silver Mine, they invited a silver refiner, Doun, from Iwami Silver Mine, which was ruled by the Ouchi Clan at the time.

 

     All in all, the Sagara Clan quickly acquired knowledge and skills necessary for getting along with Ming from the Ouchi Clan and managed to send their first “mission” to Ming in 1554, just 3 years after the Ouchi Clan practically fell with Yoshitaka’s defeated suicide death in 1551, when Yoshitaka was overthrown by Sue Harutaka, his vassal.  In April, 1555, the Sagara Clan sent out their second “mission” to Ming.  Sue Harutaka was killed in the battle against the Mori Clan on Itsuku-shima Island in October, 1555.  In 1557, the Ouchi Clan, their teacher, even nominally became extinct with the suicide death of Yoshinaga, Yoshitaka’s nephew and a puppet of Sue Harutaka, defeated by the Mori Clan.  The Mori Clan firmly grabbed the command of the sea in the Seto Inland Sea with the Murakami Clan as its navy.

 

 

The Otomo Clan and their Smuggling

 

     The founder of the Otomo Clan was Yoshinao (1172-1223).  He was born to the Kondo family, and later was adopted in the Nakahara family.  As he was based at Otomo County (a part of today’s Odawara City in Kanagawa Prefecture) in Sagami Province, he started calling his family Otomo.

 

     Yoshinao performed great military services for the establishment of Kamakura Shogunate, and became one of the most powerful vassals of Minamoto Yoritomo (1147-1199), the founder of the shogunate.  Yoshinao was appointed to be the guardian samurai in Buzen, Bungo, and Chikuzen Provinces in Kyushu, but it is not clear if he actually visited those provinces.  He mainly stayed either in Kamakura or Kyoto.

 

     The Otomo Clan might have been too close to the Minamoto Clan.  As the power shifted to the Hojo Clan in the shogunate, the Otomos lost their chances to play important roles in the shogunate government.  In the meanwhile, Khubilai Khan (1215-1294), the first Mongol emperor of China, sent his naval expeditions to Kyushu in 1274 and 1281.  Otomo Yoriyasu (1222-1309), the third head of the clan, went to Bungo Province.  He was appointed as a wartime commissioner, and did his jobs to ask for warriors to be dispatched, to verify their services in battle fields, and report their contributions to the shogunate government.

 

     Later, the Otomo Clan was based in Funai, Bungo Province.

 

     A record of the Kingdom of Joseon tells us that Otomo Mochinao (?-1445?) asked the kingdom for Makaprajnaparamita Sutra, or “Large Perfection of Wisdom Sutra,” and a large Buddhist temple bell in 1429.  The request was a countermeasure against the Ouchi Clan’s importing Palman Daejanggyeong, or Tripitaka.  The overwhelming number of Tripitaka the Ouchi Clan possessed showed off their outstanding position in Japan-Joseon relations.

 

     The 8th shogun, Ashikaga Yoshimasa (1436-1490, reigning 1449-1473), who built Ginkaku-ji Temple, sold Japan-Ming trading tallies for his financial reasons.  The spread of tallies enabled the Otomo Clan to take part in a mission to Ming along with the Ouchi Clan.

 

     The mission to Ming in 1453, for example, had 9 ships.  Mission Ship No. 6 was managed by the Otomo Clan.  Although there is no official record left about the ship, Shoun Zuikin, a priest on Mission Ship No. 1, kept his diary, and he mentioned Mission Ship No. 6 several times.  The ship arrived at Ningbo Port on April the 23rd along with the other ships, and landed their tributes on June the 2nd.  When the mission sent out their delegation to Beijing, Shiryu Koto, who embarked on Mission Ship No. 6, was included.  The delegation arrived at Hang-zhou on August the 12th, at Beijing on October the 8th, and was finally presented to the Jingtai Emperor on October the 10th.

 

     Chikashige was wise enough to place stress on foreign trade, sent missions to Joseong and Ming actively, and made enormous profit.  Some of the false missions to Joseong during the 15th century might have included those by the Otomo Clan.  

 

     Although the mission to Ming in 1453 brought a lot of profit to the Otomo Clan, accepting the mission with 9 ships and about 1200 members was an enormous burden on Ming.  In 1453, Ming set a rule which allowed Japan to send only one mission every 10 years with no more than 3 ships and 300 members.  The restriction made it impossible for the clan to manage its own ship within a mission.  After the mission to Ming in 1468, all the clan could do was to send guard samurais and provide sulfur as exports.

 

     To break the commercial deadlock, the Otomo Clan started sending out “false” missions to Ming.  In the middle of the 16th century, Otomo Yoshiaki (1502-1550) sent out 2 “false” missions to Ming with Juko and Seiryo as ambassadors respectively.  You might regard those “false” missions to Ming just as private trading with Ming.  Whatever you may call those ships, they didn’t have valid tallies nor good letters offered from the king of Japan.  In many cases, they had out-of-date old tallies which had been sold out by Ashikaga Yoshimasa (1436-1490).  When they were not admitted to be official national missions, they just sailed south as far as Fujian, where coastguard was insufficient, and traded with private citizens there.  As the Ming Dynasty government adopted a national isolation policy, the Ming officials called the ships Wokou smugglers.

 

     In 1551, the situation changed dramatically for the Otomo Clan.  Ouchi Yoshitaka (1507-1551), who had organized the missions to Ming in 1540 and in 1549 in place of the eclipsed central Muromachi Shogunate government, was overthrown by Sue Harutaka (1521-1555).  Otomo Harufusa (?-1557), a younger brother of Yoshishige (1530-1587), was adopted to the Ouchi Clan in 1552, and succeeded Yoshitaka.  Harufua followed the legend of Imseong-taeja, who had been professed to be the Ouchi Clan’s first ancestor in Japan, landed the Tatara Beach in Bofu Province on February the 29th, and entered the mansion of the Ouchi Clan on March the 3rd.  He was recognized as the clan’s successor by Muromachi Shogunate next spring, and changed his name to Ouchi Yoshinaga.  Three years later, in November, 1556, Jiang Zhou visited both Otomo Yoshishige and Ouchi Yoshinaga to admonish the two to crack down on Wokou.

 

     According to a Chinese record dated August the 20th, 1557:

 

     In 1556, Hu Zongxian, the supreme commander in Zhejiang Province, Ming, sent Chen Keyuan and Jiang Zhou to Japan.  The two first visited Goto Islands in Japan, and met Wang Zhi and Mao Haifeng, famous Chinese Wokou chiefs who were based in the island.  Keyuan returned to Ming to report, but Zhou stayed in Japan and kept visiting other islands.

 

     Jiang Zhou went to Bungo Province, and stayed there.  He sent his priest messenger to “Yamaguchi Island” and admonished “the military governor of Yamaguchi, Minamoto Yoshinaga,” to crack down on Wokou.  Yoshinaga dispatched an official document with the seal of the King of Japan, and sent captives back.

 

     “The governor of Bungo Province, Minamoto Yoshishige,” sent Tokuyo, a priest, with local products, offered an apology document, asked for a tally to offer tribute, and sent Zhou back with guards.

 

     Obviously, Minamoto Yoshinaga was Ouchi Yoshinaga, and Minamoto Yoshishige was Otomo Yoshishige.

 

     Seeing the development of the situation from Otomo Yoshishige’s angle, Yoshishige capitalized on the opportunity to organize an official mission to Ming almost a century after the mission to Ming in 1453.  However, Ming’s government considered that Yoshinaga usurped the Ouchi Clan, and refused to issue a tally.

 

     From 1555, the Mori Clan started invading the Ouchi Clan’s provinces, and, in the early spring of the year 1557, Ouchi Yoshinaga was forced into the westernmost corner of Nagato Province, the westernmost province of Mainland Japan, was cheated by Fukubara Sadatoshi (1512-1593) — a vassal of the Mori Clan — let Naito Tokoyo (1536-1557) — a vassal of the late Sue Harutaka (1521-1555) — commit harakiri suicide on April the 2nd, and then was forced to kill himself on the 3rd in Kozan-ji Temple.  Otomo Yoshishige left Yoshinaga in the lurch, and captured the Ouchi Clan’s Chikuzen and Buzen Provinces in Kyushu Island through luck.

 

     After the fall of Ouchi Clan, the Japanese western warlords as well as the Otomo Clan lost prospects for sending an official mission to Ming and devoted themselves to smuggling more than ever.

 

     The Otomo Clan was not only looking east toward China and Korea, but also seeing southward.  They struggled for the command of the sea in the Bungo Channel between Kyushu and Shikoku Islands, their south gate to the Pacific Ocean.

 

     In 1435, for example, Otomo Mochinao (?-1445) fought against Kono Mochimichi (?-1435), the guardian samurai of Iyo Province, Shikoku, and killed him in a battle in Mt. Himedake near Usuki Manor, Bungo Province, Kyushu.

 

     Otomo Chikashige (1411-1493) married his daughter to Kono Michinobu (?-1519) to settle the dispute over Usuki Manor.  And then, in 1546, Otomo Yoshishige  (1530-1587) invaded the Saionji Clan’s manor in Uwa County, Iyo Province, Shikoku, this time.

 

     To digress, between Usuki and Uwa, in the middle of Bungo Channel, there lies Hiburi-jima Island, which was the base of Fujiwara Sumitomo (?-941), the first pirate king in Japan.

 

     Just another digression, the Saionji Clan had replaced the Tachibana Family in Uwa against all reason in 1236.  One legend says that the Tachibana Family were descendants of Tachibana Toyasu (?-944), who subdued Fujiwara Sumitomo.

 

     Through their south gate, Bungo Channel, where were the Otomo Clan’s ships heading to?  As the clan collapsed at the end of the Warring State Period, we have no written records left on their side, but from fragments of information left in Kyoto or from documents of the Shimazu Clan, who not only survived from Kamakura Shogunate through the Warring State Period to Tokugawa Shogunate but also played an important role in overthrowing the Tokugawa Clan and in accomplishing the Meiji Restoration, we can make a guess or two.

 

     In later years in the late 1560’s, on November the 5th, Otomo Yoshishige (1530-1587) wrote a letter to Shimazu Yoshihisa (1533-1611):

 

     “As we live far from each other, I have not heard from you for long.  Your shields and spikes have not reached here so long.  You should show how you are.  Our bows and arrows are always all ready.  Please do not worry about me.

 

     “By the way, I am sending people to Ryukyu.  When they sail off your domain, please pay attention to them as usual.  I appreciate it and send 5 rolls of silk in advance just to make up for this short letter.

 

     “With best regards,”

 

     It is obvious that the Otomo Clan was trading with Ryukyu at the time as the Sagara Clan did.

 

     On August the 25th, 1573, 4 managers of the Otomo Clan wrote a letter signed jointly to 6 managers of the Shimazu Clan, which was stored by the Shimazu Clan.

 

     “This time, we sent out a ship to the Kingdom of Cambodia.  It sailed back and moored in your domain.  A typhoon came, and we heard that the ship got some problems.  We sent a messenger to you to ask about the ship.  However, we have not got a reply yet, and are worried about it.

 

     “As you know, your clan and ours have enjoyed friendship for generations.  Why on earth did you betray us?  Other countries will laugh at it as it must not happen.  Be sensible right away, and it will be appreciated.

 

     “Even in Cambodia, when our ship got some problems, the king knew that the ship had been sent by Yoshishige, treated it fairly, and even sent a messenger to inform us.  If you do not behave properly quickly, how does that big country think of you?  Consider that and show your reserved attitudes, and we will be glad.  We are waiting for good news.

 

     “With best regards,”

 

     Reiun-in Temple in Kyoto stores his topical record on Setsushin Shinko (?-?), who was a zen priest and who also worked as a diplomat for the Shimazu Clan.  He kept a copy of the letter written by Shimazu Yoshihisa (1533-1611) to the king of Cambodia in November, 1579.

 

     “We have a trading ship of your country here.  It drifted and showed itself in front of a port in Satsuma Province, Kyushu, Japan.  Through an interpreter, we asked the captain of the ship, the ambassador, and the vice-ambassador about what had happened to them.  They all said that they tried to bring a royal letter and tribute to Otomo Yoshishige across the ocean.  However, they heard that Bungo army invaded Satsuma only to be completely defeated with over ten thousand of their soldiers killed in the previous winter, that the Otomo Clan almost collapsed, and that Kyushu all belonged to Satsuma.  So, the 3 handed the royal letter and tribute to me.

 

     “From now on, our country shall be a partner country for your country, and our friendship should last for generations to come.”

 

     Previously, Otomo Yoshishige invaded Hyuga Province, deploying a troop strength of 30,000, to attack Shimazu Yoshihisa.  On November the 9th-12th, they clashed around Taka-jo Castle in Koyu County, Hyuga Province.   3,000 of Otomo’s men were reported to have been killed in the battle, and Yoshishige retreated to Bungo.  After the battle, the Otomo Clan almost collapsed, and the Shimazu Clan consolidated their ruling over 3 provinces in Kyushu; Satsuma, Osumi, and Hyuga.

 

     The letter from Otomo’s side in 1573 reads that the Otomo Clan had already established diplomatic relations with the Kingdom of Cambodia before the letter, but it is not clear whether the ship mentioned in the letter accidentally could not come back to Bungo or the Shimazu Clan intentionally blocked it.  In 1579, Shimazu Yoshihisa interrupted the ship mentioned in the letter on purpose, misappropriated the royal letter and tribute, and wrote a reply to the king of Cambodia for his loser, Otomo Yoshishige, obviously disregarding him.

 

     The tribute in 1579, which was taken by the Shimazu Clan, included an elephant, an elephant trainer, 2 mirror makers, a copper gun, and 60 kilograms of beeswax.

 

     Thus, the Shimazu Clan’s smuggling with South-East Asia started, which would be taken over by red-seal ships introduced by Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536-1598), who unified the whole country in 1590.

 

 

The Matsura Clan and their Smuggling

 

     We can know what the ancient Matsura area was like through the Records of the Three Kingdoms; a Chinese historical text which covers the history of the Late (East) Han Dynasty (BC184-AD220) and the Three Kingdoms Period (220-280).  The 3 kingdoms included Wei, Shu, and Wu.  Volume 30 of the Book of Wei has Biographies of the Wuhan, Xianbei, and Dongyi.  The Dongyi biography has the entry about Wa, today’s Japan.

 

     Himiko, the queen of Wa, sent ambassadors to Wei in 238, 243, 245, and 247.  The returning ambassadors of Wei described Japan.

 

     To reach the Yamatai Country, where Himiko lived, the ambassadors crossed the Korea Strait via Tsushima and Iki Islands, and arrived at the north-west coast of Kyushu.  The area was called Matsura Country.  The country was covered with weeds and trees so dense that they could not see people walking in front of them.  The people living there were good at catching fish and abalones not only in the shallow sea but even by diving into the deep sea.

 

     The Matsura Clan started as the Matsura People, as the Murakami Clan started as the Murakami People.  The Matsura people were sea people, and later became sea samurais, or pirates in short.  In the battle of Dan-no-ura in 1185, they fought for the Taira Clan.  They fought against the Mongol invasions of Japan in 1274 and 1281 for the Kamakura Shogunate.  Under the Muromachi Shogunate, they worked as escorts for missions to Ming.  In the latter half of the 15th century, one family became more powerful than others, and formed the Matsura Clan.  In the 16th century, the Hirado Family, one of the branch families of the Matsura Clan, became powerful.  During the family’s powerful reign, Takanobu (1529-1599) succeeded the headship of the family in 1543.  In 1565, he forced the head family of the Matsura Clan to adopt his third son, practically took over the Matsura Clan, and called himself Matsura Takanobu.  In 1568, his eldest son, Shigenobu (1549-1599), succeeded the headship of the clan.

 

     The Hirado Family became powerful through smuggling with foreign countries.

 

     In 1550, a Portuguese ship first visited Hirado.  From 1553, one or two Portuguese ships came to Hirado annually.  That brought prosperity to Hirado, but Takanobu didn’t like their missionary work.  Under the tension, the captain and 13 other crew members of a Portuguese ship were killed in 1561, and Portuguese merchants moved to Nagasaki.

 

     In 1609, 2 Dutch ships visited Hirado, and opened a trading house, although it moved to Dejima, Nagasaki, in 1641.

 

     In 1613, an English ship came to Hirado, and set up a trading house, which was closed in 1623 because of their poor trading performance.

 

     Anyway, Hirado enjoyed its prosperity through trading, or smuggling, with western countries for more than half a century.  But what about trading, or smuggling, with Asian countries?

 

     Matsura Historical Museum stored a draft of a letter written by Matsura Shigenobu (1549-1599) to the king of Siam in January, 1577.

 

     According to the letter, in 1576, Guo Liuguan sailed his Chinese “junk” to Hirado with a Siamese ambassador aboard.  And, this time, in 1577, Wu Laobao sailed his junk to Hirado with another ambassador.  Shigenobu thanked the king for his gifts, asked him to send an ambassador annually, and reciprocated with a set of Japanese armor.

 

     The Matsura Clan didn’t seem to have had their own ship.  The Siamese might not have had their own.  Their diplomatic relations were mediated by Chinese traders.